Lexikon

groundwater protection describes the management processes by which groundwater quality and resources are protected against pollution and over-exploitation. (Source: EUGRIS)

noise consequences on human health consist in loss of hearing and psychological effects.

the total of measures and devices implemented to preserve persons from harm to the faculty of perceiving sound.

hectare is a unit of area, defined as 10,000 square metres, and primarily used in the measurement of land. In 1795, when the metric system was introduced, the are was defined as being 100 square metres and the hectare ("hecto-" + "are") was thus 100 ares or 1/100 km². Data in the table supports conversion of different area units.

water generates electricity when it drops gravitationally, driving a turbine and generator. While most hydroelectricity is produced by water falling from dams, some is produced by water flowing down rivers (run-of-the-river electricity).

Conventionally, hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of dammed water driving a water turbine and generator. The power extracted from the water depends on the volume and on the difference in height between the source and the water's outflow. This height difference is called the head. The amount of potential energy in water is proportional to the head. A large pipe (the "penstock") delivers water to the turbine.

Pumped-storage hydroelectric power plant produces electricity to supply high peak demands by moving water between reservoirs at different elevations. At times of low electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir. When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine. Pumped-storage schemes currently provide the most commercially important means of large-scale grid energy storage and improve the daily capacity factor of the generation system.

Run-of-the-river hydroelectric stations are those with small or no reservoir capacity, so that the water coming from upstream must be used for generation at that moment, or must be allowed to bypass the dam.

A tidal power plant makes use of the daily rise and fall of ocean water due to tides; such sources are highly predictable, and if conditions permit construction of reservoirs, can also be dispatchable to generate power during high demand periods. Less common types of hydro schemes use water's kinetic energy or undammed sources such as undershot waterwheels.

An underground power station makes use of a large natural height difference between two waterways, such as a waterfall or mountain lake. An underground tunnel is constructed to take water from the high reservoir to the generating hall built in an underground cavern near the lowest point of the water tunnel and a horizontal tailrace taking water away to the lower outlet waterway.

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroelectricity

indicator species maybe bacteria or other microorganisms, fungi, plant or animal species whose prescence, abundance, and health reveal the general condition of its habitat.

see: IT

the Institute for Health and Consumer Protection (IHCP) is one of the seven scientific institutes of the Joint Research Centre (JRC), of the European Commission. Its mission is to protect the interests and health of the consumer in the framework of EU legislation on chemicals, food and consumer products.

IHCP co-operates a number of policy domains which are relevant to consumer protection and health of European citizens. The most relevant areas are:

• Alternative Methods and ECVAM (European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods)
• GMOs
• Nanotechnology
• Consumer Products and Nutrition
• Health and Environment

In some of these areas IHCP operates Community Reference Laboratories or offices which coordinate a particular activity in collaboration with national laboratories in the European Union Member States. The two Community Reference Laboratories (CRL) are:

1. The Community Reference Laboratory on Food Contact Materials (CRL-FCM) and
2. The Community Reference Laboratory for GM Food and Feed (CRL-GMFF)

And the centres/officea are:

1. The European Centre for Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM)
2. The European Office for Wine, Alcoholic and Spirit Drinks (BEVABS)

Source: http://ihcp.jrc.ec.europa.eu/

Animal experimentation is used for the development of new chemicals or medicines, for physiological studies, for studying environmental effects or for testing new food additives.The protection and welfare of animals is an area covered by a wide range of EU legislation. These include wildlife, zoo animals, farm animals, animals in transport and also animals used in scientific experiments. EU legislation on the protection of animals used for experimental and other scientific purposes is covered by Directive 86/609/EEC.

The 1997 Treaty of Amsterdam obliges the EU and its Member States to take animal welfare considerations into account in a number of policy areas and also in the practice by developing and using alternatíve testing methods instead of animal experiments.

The most pragmatic approach to reduce experiments on animals is the replacement of animal testing. Whenever replacement is not possible, all efforts should be made to apply those methods which use fewer animals and which cause least harm to the animals.

The replacement may happen by in vitro methods, which use living cells or tissue cultures instead of animals or by the application of mathematical methods, like QSAR.

abbreviated as LOD, defined as the lowest concentration or quantity of analyte required to give a signal, which can be distinguished from the background noise. The signal to noise ratio of 3:1 is generally considered acceptable for estimating LOD.

in the interests of clarity and rationality, the relevant EU Directives should be codified by assembling them in a single text.

The essential aim of any rules governing the production, distribution and use of medicinal products must be to safeguard public health. However, this objective must be attained by means which will not hinder the development of the pharmaceutical industry or trade in medicinal products within the Community.

microinjection is a technique for introducing a solution of DNA into a cell using a fine microcapillary pipet.

mutagenic substances or agents are, those, which induce mutation in living cells. Mutagenicity refers to the induction of permanent transmissible changes in the amount or structure of the genetic material of cells or organisms. These changes may involve a single gene or gene segment, a block of genes or chromosomes.

Alterations to the genetic material of cells may occur spontaneously or be induced as a result of exposure to ionising or ultraviolet radiation, or genotoxic substances. In principle, human exposure to substances that are mutagens may result in increased frequencies of mutations above baseline. Heritable damage to the offspring, and possibly to subsequent generations, of parents exposed to substances that are mutagens may follow if mutations are induced in parental germ cells (reproduction cells). Mutations in somatic cells (cells others than reproduction cells) may be lethal or may be transferred to daughter cells with deleterious consequences for the affected organism. There is considerable evidence of a positive correlation between the mutagenicity of substances in vivo and their carcinogenicity in long-term studies with animals. The aims of testing for mutagenicity are to assess the potential of substances to induce effects which may cause heritable damage in humans or lead to cancer.

Mutagens are usually chemical compounds or ionizing radiation. Mutagens can be divided into different categories according to their effect on DNA replication:

• Some mutagens act as base analogs and get inserted into the DNA strand during replication in place of the substrates.
• Some react with DNA and cause structural changes that lead to miscopying of the template strand when the DNA is replicated.
• Some work indirectly by causing the cells to synthesize chemicals that have the direct mutagenic effect.

highest dose with No Observable Adverse Effect. It is the highest tested dose or exposure level at which there are no statistically significant increases in the frequency or severity of adverse effects between exposed population and an appropriate control group. Some effects may be produced at this level, but they are not considered adverse ort precursors of adverse effects (Source: REACH).

sound is radiated both as air-borne and as structure-borne; most sources produce both, thus various noise attenuation principles must be employed. Measures include: the replacement of components with quieter parts and material; the enclosure of particularly noisy components; the selection of quieter types of fan; the replacement of noisy compressed-air nozzles with quieter types; the choice of quieter transmission and cooling systems.

the Pan-European Ecological Network (PEEN) is one of the implementation tools of the Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy (PEBLDS). PEEN aims to link the different European and national protected areas and ecological networks with goal of ensuring the favourable conservation status of Europe’s key ecosystems, habitats, species and landscapes.

Ecological network is a system of the most valuable sites, important for protection of threatened species, habitat types, ecological systems or landscapes. Ecological network sites must be relatively close to each other and connected with corridors, which allow them to communicate and exchange species.

Ecological networks contain four main elements:

1. Core areas: These are areas where the primary function is biodiversity conservation. They are usually legally protected under national or European legislation (e.g. Natura 2000 sites). These areas should provide a substantial representation of key natural or semi-natural ecosystems and contain viable populations of important or threatened species. Land use within these areas is managed to give priority to biodiversity conservation.

2. Corridors: These are areas of suitable habitat that provide functional linkages link between core areas. For example, they may stimulate or allow species migration between areas. Corridors can be continuous strips of land or ‘stepping stones’ that are patches of suitable habitat. Using corridors to improve ecological coherence is one of the most important tools in combating the fragmentation that is threatening so many of Europe’s habitats. Generally speaking corridors can be associated with higher levels of land use, as long as their function is maintained.

3. Buffer zones: Protected areas should not be considered as islands that are safe from negative external effects. The resource use that occurs outside them can have serious impacts on species and habitats within, for example air/water pollution from industrial activities around a protected area can have serious effects on species inside it. Buffer zones allow a smoother transition between core areas and surrounding land use. The size and utilisation of buffer zones depends heavily on the particular needs of the specific ecosystem and its local population.

4. Sustainable use areas: These are remaining areas that can come under more intensive land use. But they should still take full account of the successful provision of ecosystem goods and services.

Connecting organisations

• ECNC-http://www.ecnc.org
• IUCN Programme Office for Central Europe-http://www.iucn-ce.org
• Database of Central and Eastern European Ecological Networks
• Plantlife International - http://www.plantlife.org.uk/international/plantlife-ipas.html
• Council of Europe
• IUCN WCPA - http://www.iucn.org/themes/wcpa/
• IUCN CEM - http://www.iucn.org/themes/cem/

Source: http://www.countdown2010.net/archive/paneuropean.html

phytotechnology is broadly defined as the use of vegetation to address contaminants in soil, sediment, surface water, and groundwater. Cleanup objectives for phytotechnologies can be contaminant removal and destruction, control and containment, or both. Phytoremediation (i.e., contaminant removal and destruction) is a phytotechnology subset (ITRC 2009).

While phytotechnologies generally are applied in situ, ex situ applications (e.g., hydroponics systems) are possible. Typical organic contaminants, such as petroleum hydrocarbons, gas condensates, crude oil, chlorinated compounds, pesticides, and explosive compounds, can be addressed using plant-based methods. Phytotechnologies also can be applied to typical inorganic contaminants, such as heavy metals, metalloids, radioactive materials, and salts (ITRC 2009).

Six major plant mechanisms enable phytotechnologies to remove, destroy, transfer, stabilize, or contain contaminants:

1.Phytoextraction

Phytoextraction involves contaminant uptake by plant roots, with subsequent accumulation in plant tissue. Plants that accumulate contaminants may require periodic harvesting and proper disposal to avoid recontaminating the soil when the plants die or drop their leaves. Phytoextraction typically is used to address inorganic contaminants, such as metals, metalloids, and radionuclides. Organic contaminants are more likely to be transformed rather than accumulated within the plant tissue. Successful field applications of phytoextraction to take up metals have been limited; however, promising research is underway for using phytoextraction on mercury and persistent organic pollutants (USEPA 2006).

Pesticides classified as persistent organic pollutants resist biodegradation and can remain in the environment for decades. Scientists have identified plants that are capable of extracting chemicals, such as chlordane and 2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)1,1-dichloroethene (p,p'-DDE), and storing them in their roots, leaves, and fruits (USEPA 2006).

Plants used in phytoextraction (e.g., Indian mustard, Alpine pennycress, sunflowers, ferns, grasses) typically are effective only in the top one foot of soil because of their shallow root systems and generally slow growth. Researchers are working on genetic modifications that increase the survivability of plants that hyperaccumulate toxic contaminants (USEPA 2006).

2. Phytodegradation

Like phytoextraction, phytodegradation involves the uptake of contaminants; however, metabolic processes within the plant subsequently break down the contaminants. Phytodegradation also encompasses the breakdown of contaminants in the soil through the effects of enzymes and other compounds produced by plant tissues other than the roots (USEPA 2006).

Phytodegradation is applicable to organic contaminants. Their uptake is affected by their hydrophobicity, solubility, and polarity; moderately hydrophobic and polar compounds are more likely to be taken up after sorbing to plant roots. Chlorinated solvents, herbicides, insecticides, pentachlorophenol (PCP), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and munitions constituents have phytodegradation potential (USEPA 2006).

3. Phytovolatilization

Phytovolatilization is the uptake of a contaminant into a plant and its subsequent transpiration to the atmosphere, or the transformation or phytodegradation of the contaminant with subsequent transpiration of the transformation or degradation products to the atmosphere. Phytovolatilization generally is applied to groundwater but also can be applied to soluble soil contaminants (USEPA 2006).

Transformation or degradation of the contaminant within the plant can create a less toxic product that is transpired; however, degradation of some contaminants, like trichloroethene (TCE), may produce even more toxic products (e.g., vinyl chloride). Once in the atmosphere, these products may be degraded more effectively by sunlight (photodegradation) than they would be by the plant (phytodegradation), but the potential advantages and disadvantages of phytovolatilization must be assessed on a site-specific basis (USEPA 2006).

Phytovolatilization has been applied to both organic and inorganic (e.g., selenium, mercury, arsenic) contaminants, but it must be reiterated that simply volatilizing a contaminant may not be an acceptable alternative (USEPA 2006).

4.Rhizodegradation

The rhizosphere is the zone of soil influenced by plant roots. Essentially, rhizodegradation is "plant-assisted bioremediation" in that the root zone enhances microbial activity, thus increasing the breakdown of organic contaminants (such as petroleum hydrocarbons, PAHs, pesticides, BTEX, chlorinated solvents, PCP, PCBs, and surfactants) in the soil. The rhizosphere extends only about 1 mm from each root. The presence of plant roots moderates soil moisture and increases soil aeration, making conditions more favorable to bioremediation. The production of root exudates, such as sugars, amino acids, and other compounds, stimulates the population growth and activity of native microbes. Root exudates also may serve as food for the microbes, which can result in cometabolism of contaminants as degradation of exudates occurs. Because the microbes consume nutrients, the plants in a rhizodegradation plot often require additional fertilization (USEPA 2006).

Rhizodegradation actually breaks down contaminants; thus, plant harvesting and disposal is not necessary. In some instances, complete mineralization of the contaminant can occur. The success of this technique is site-specific, however, and laboratory microcosms may not reflect the microbial conditions encountered in the field. Petroleum hydrocarbons have been degraded successfully in the rhizosphere, but degradation of aged hydrocarbons has been shown to be more problematic (USEPA 2006).

5.Phytosequestration

Phytosequestration, also referred to as phytostabilization, is a mechanism that immobilizes contaminants, mainly metals, within the root zone, limiting their migration. Immobilization of contaminants can result from adsorption of metals to plant roots, formation of metal complexes, precipitation of metal ions (e.g., due to a change in pH), or a change to a less toxic redox state. Phytosequestration can occur when plants alter the chemical and microbial makeup of the soil (e.g., through the production of exudates or carbon dioxide), which impacts the fate and transport of the soil metals. (USEPA 2006) Although transport proteins within the plant facilitate the transfer of contaminants between cells, plant cells contain a compartment called the vacuole that acts, in part, as a storage and waste receptacle for the plant. The vacuoles of root cells can sequester contaminants, preventing further translocation to the xylem (ITRC 2009).

Because contaminants are retained in the soil, phytosequestration does not require plant harvesting and disposal; however, evaluation of the system is necessary to verify that translocation of contaminants into the plant tissue is not occurring. Due to the continuing presence of contaminants in the root zone, plant health must be monitored and maintained to ensure system integrity and prevent future release of contaminants. Phytosequestration also can be used to prevent migration of soil contaminants with wind and water erosion, soil dispersion, and leaching (USEPA 2006).

6. Phytohydraulics

Phytohydraulics is the ability of vegetation to evapotranspire sources of surface water and groundwater. Water interception capacity by the aboveground canopy and subsequent evapotranspiration through the root system can limit vertical migration of water from the surface downward. The horizontal migration of groundwater can be controlled or contained using deep-rooted species, such as prairie plants and trees, to intercept, take up, and transpire the water. Trees classified as phreatophytes are deep-rooted, high-transpiring, water-loving organisms that send their roots into regions of high moisture and can survive in conditions of temporary saturation. Typical phreatophytes include species such as cottonwoods, poplars, and willows (ITRC 2009).

Source: USEPA. 2006. In Situ Treatment Technologies for Contaminated Soil: Engineering Forum Issue Paper. EPA 542-F-06-013.

ITRC (Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council). 2009. Phytotechnology

Technical and Regulatory Guidance and Decision Trees, Revised. Phyto-3