Lexikon

BEVs store electricity in batteries and draw power from the batteries to run an electric motor that drives the vehicle. So long as the ultimat electricity source is clean, the BEV system can reduce emissions significantly compared with an internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) run on a liquid fuel. Indeed, BEVs using WWS power would be completely zero-emission vehicles. Moreover, BEVs get about 5 times more work (in miles of travel) per unit of input energy than do ICEVs (mi/kWh-outlet versus mi/kWh-gasoline). BEVs have existed for decades in small levels of production, and today most major automobile companies are developing BEVs. The latest generation of vehicles uses lithium-ion batteries, which do not use the toxic chemicals associated with lead-acid or the nickel-cadmium batteries (1).

Vehicles using both electric motors and internal combustion engines are examples of hybrid electric vehicles, and are not considered pure (or all) EVs because they operate in a charge-sustaining mode.

• Regular hybrid electric vehicles cannot be externally charged.
• Hybrid vehicles with batteries that can be charged externally to displace some or all of their internal combustion engine power and gasoline fuel are called plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV), and are BEVs during their charge-depleting mode.

All-electric and plug-in hybrids are off-vehicle charge capable. (“OVCC” or pluginable), which means their batteries can be charged from an off-vehicle electric energy source that cannot be connected or coupled to the vehicle while the vehicle is being driven (2)

Sources:

(1) Mark Z. Jacobson and Mark A. Delucchi: Evaluating the Feasibility of a Large-Scale Wind, Water, and Sun Energy Infrastructure

(2) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_electric_vehicle

community of sediment dwelling organisms, named also benthos.

the Best Practicable Environmental Option BPEO Twelfth Report, FEB 1988, Cm 310, is a set of procedures adopted by Great Britain with the goal of managing waste and other environmental concerns. According to the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution, BPEO "emphasises the protection and conservation of the environment across land, air and water. The BPEO procedure establishes for a given set of objectives, the option that provides the most benefits or the least damage to the environment, as a whole, at acceptable cost, in the long term as well as in the short term."
Source: Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_practicable_environmental_option

a microbial, plant or animal species whose presence, abundance, and health reveal the general condition of its habitat. The specific chemical, biochemical or genetical characteristic or molecule of these species can also function and bio-indicator. These bio-indicators can be used as measured endpoints in ecological surveys or ecotoxicological test methods.

material derived from living organisms. biogenic elements are the elements in the living organisms: C, H, O, N, S and P. biogenic amines are the biologically active amines of biological origin.

biological pest control in the organic agriculture is mainly against arthropods (e.g. insects, mites) and nematodes, as well as fungi and bacteria.

Insect pests are a common problem, and insecticides, both non-organic and organic, are controversial due to their environmental and health effects. One way to manage insects is to ignore them and focus on plant health, since plants can survive the loss of about a third of leaf area before suffering severe growth consequences.

To avoid using insecticides, one can select naturally resistant plants, put bags around the plants, remove dying material such as leaves, fruit, and diseased plants, cover plants with a solid barrier ("row cover"), wash them, encourage and release beneficial organisms and beneficial insects, plant companion plants and polycultures, install traps such as sticky cards (which can also be used to assess insect prevalence), and season extension. Biological pest control uses natural predators. Recommended beneficial insects include minute pirate bugs, big-eyed bugs, and to a lesser extent ladybugs (which tend to fly away), all of which eat a wide range of pests. Lacewings are also effective, but tend to fly away. Praying mantis tend to move more slowly and eat less heavily. Parasitoid wasps tend to be effective for their selected prey, but like all small insects can be less effective outdoors because the wind controls their movement. Predatory mites are effective for controlling other mites.

Several pesticides approved for organic use, such as spinosad and neem, have been called green pesticides. The main organic insecticides used in the US are Bt (a bacterial toxin) and pyrethrum. Surveys have found that fewer than 10% of organic farmers use these pesticides regularly. Nicotine sulfate may also be used although it is extremely toxic, but breaks down quickly. Less toxic but still effective organic insecticides include neem, spinosad, soaps, garlic, citrus oil, capsaicin (repellent), Bacillus popillae, Beauvaria bassiana, and boric acid. Pesticides should be rotated to minimize pest resistance.

The first disease control strategy involves cleaning the area by removing diseased and dying plants and ensure that the plants are healthy by maintaining water and fertilization.

Compost tea can be effective, but there is concern over whether these are ineffective or even harmful when made incorrectly.

Polyculture and crop rotation reduce the ability of disease to spread. Disease-resistant cultivars can be purchased.

Organic fungicides include the bacteria Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus pumilus, and Trichoderma harzianum which are mainly effective for diseases affecting roots.

Bordeaux mixture contains copper, which can be used as an organic fungicide in various forms. Sulfur is effective against fungus as well as some insects.Lime sulfur is also available, but can damage plants if used incorrectly. Potassium and sodium bicarbonate are also effective against fungus.

Agricultural Research Service scientists have found that caprylic acid, a naturally-occurring fatty acid in milk and coconuts, as well as other natural plant extracts have antimicrobial characteristics that can help.

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_farming

the transfer of substances from the environment to microorganisms, plants, animals, and humans.

biological methods of wastewater treatment aim the biodegradation of the organic and inorganic pollutants in the waste water or the elimination ot these by other biological processes. The biodegradable organic material content of the waste waters is expressed as BOD (Biological Oxigene Demand) which is too high to let the waste-water into living surface waters. That is why we can say, that the aim of biological waste-water treatment is to reduce the BOD content in the waste-waters before their discharge into surface waters. Wastewaters enter the treatment plant with a BOD higher than 200 mg/L, but primary settling has already reduced it to about 150 mg/L by the time it enters the biological component of the technology. It needs to exit with a BOD content no higher than about 20−30 mg/L, so that after dilution in the nearby receiving water body (river, lake), the BOD is less than 2−3 mg/L.

Main principle of biological waste-water treatment is that bacterial cells use the organic material present in the wastewater as substrates for energy production (respiration, mineralisation) accompanied with CO₂ and NH₃ production. Part of the organic and inorganic constituents of the waste-water is used for the biosynthesis of the same microbes; through their metabolism, the organic material is transformed into cellular mass, which is no longer in solution but can be precipitated at the bottom of a settling tank or retained as slime on solid surfaces or vegetation in the system. The outflow of water becomes much clearer than it was, when entered.

The bioengineer ensures the optimal conditionss for the microorganisms to be able to work most efficiently. A key factor is the operation of an aerobic biological system is an adequate supply of oxygen. Indeed, cells need not only organic material as food but also oxygen to breathe. Without an adequate supply of oxygen, the biological degradation of the waste is slowed down, thereby requiring a longer residency time of the water in the treatment technology.

Biological treatment, is also called secondary waste-water treatment is designed to substantially degrade the biologically degradable or modifiable content of the sewage which are derived from human waste, food waste, soaps and detergent, in some cases industrial wastes. The majority of municipal plants treat the settled sewage liquor using aerobic biological processes. The bacteria and protozoa consume biodegradable soluble organic contaminants (e.g. sugars, fats, organic short-chain carbon molecules, etc.) and bind much of the less soluble fractions into floc. Flocs consists of living and dead microbes, slime and sorbed, non.degradable pollutants and waste material. The flocs can be sedimented or otherwise separated from the water phase. Some pollutants are concentrated in the waste-water sludge; part of them are able to be slowly degraded, but an other part is persistent (metals, persistent organic substances). These persistent contaminants in waste-water sludges makes the unlimited utilisation of the sludge impossibel.

Biological waste-water treatment systems are classified as fixed-film or suspended-growth systems. Fixed-film or attached growth systems include trickling filters and rotating biological contactors, where the biomass grows on media and the sewage passes over its surface. Suspended-growth systems include activated sludge, where the biomass is mixed with the sewage and can be operated in a smaller space than fixed-film systems that treat the same amount of water. However, fixed-film systems are more able to cope with drastic changes in the amount of biological material and can provide higher removal rates for organic material and suspended solids than suspended growth systems (Wikipedia).

The most well-known biologica waste-water treatment technologies are the following:
- Activated sludge treatmen
- Surface-aerated basins (Lagoons)
- Filter beds (oxidizing beds)
- Soil Bio-Technology
- Biological aerated filters
- Rotating biological contactors
- Membrane bioreactors
- Secondary sedimentation
- Lagooning
- Constructed wetlands
- Nitrogen removal
- Phosphorus removal

Technologies for the treatment of the waste-water sludge
- Anaerobic digestion
- Aerobic digestion
- Composting
- Incineration
- Sludge disposal

living organisms contribute to the weathering process in many ways.

Trees put down roots through joints or cracks in the rock in order to find moisture. As the tree grows, the roots gradually prize the rock apart.

Even the tiniest bacteria, algae and lichens produce chemicals that help break down the rock on which they live, so they can get the nutrients they need.

Many animals, such as these Piddock shells, bore into rocks for protection either by scraping away the grains or secreting acid to dissolve the rock.
Source: http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/gsl/education/resources/rockcycle/page3568.html

a bit is a specific amount of information found in computers. It is abreviation of Binary Unit.

Bytes, kilobytes, megabytes and gigabytes are all increasing levels of bits. A bit is the smallest piece of computer memory. It is either 1 or 0, meaning on or off. It is exactly one-eighth.

carcinogenic effect has a substance or a mixture of substances which induces cancer or increases its incidence and/or malignancy or shorten the time to tumour occurrence. Causing cancer may be due to the ability to damage the genome or to the disruption of cellular metabolic processes. Carcinogenic chemicals have conventionally been divided into two categories according to the presumed mode of action. Non-genotoxic modes of action include epigenetic changes, i.e., effects that do not involve alterations in DNA but that may influence gene expression, altered cell-cell communication, or other factors involved in the carcinogenic process.

Cancer is a disorder of the cells, characterized by the lack of programmed cell death. Carcinogens induces the uncontrolled, malignant division pf cells, ultimately leading to the formation of tumors. Usually DNA damage leads to programmed cell death, but if the programmed cell death pathway is damaged, then the cell cannot prevent itself from becoming a cancer cell. The objective of investigating the carcinogenicity of chemicals is to identify potential human carcinogens, their modes of action, and their potency. Once a chemical has been identified as a carcinogen, there is a need to elucidate the underlying mode of action, i.e. whether the chemical is directly genotoxic or not. For genotoxic carcinogens it is assumed that, unless exception, there is no discernible threshold and that any level of exposure carries a risk. For non-genotoxic carcinogens, no-effect-thresholds are assumed to exist and to be discernable. Human studies are generally not available for making a distinction between the above mentioned modes of action; and a conclusion on this, in fact, depends on the outcome of mutagenicity testing and other mechanistic studies. In addition to this, animal studies may also inform on the underlying mode of carcinogenic action.

The cancer hazard and mode of action may also be highly dependent on exposure conditions such as the route of exposure. Therefore, all relevant effect data and information on human exposure conditions are evaluated.

it is also called simply caustic or lye, its chemical formula is NaOH. originally ot was produced from soda (Na₂CO₃), today it is the principal co-product in chlorine manufacture. Sold as a household chemical for unblocking drains and used industrially in the manufacture of rayon, pulp and paper, aluminium, soaps and detergents, textiles and vegetable oils.

CEFIC (European Chemical Industry Council) is the Brussels-based organization representing the European chemical industry. Since its creation in 1972, Cefic has grown to become one of the largest and most efficient advocacy network amongst the industry trade organizations in Europe and in the world, representing 29 000 companies that produce about 30% of the world chemicals and employ about 1.3 million people, 22 national chemical federations and 6 associated federations across Europe. Took part in over 60 Strategy Implementation Groups and Issue Teams dealing with the industry's strategic concerns such as REACH, energy, environment, international trade, research & innovation and many others. More than 4000 industry experts from companies and federations participate in the Cefic groups. CEFIC has Close cooperation with the US, Japan and other major chemical countries through ICCA and many federations and trade unions.

The European Policy Centre comprises 7 programmes, backed up by the two corporate Communications and Advocacy functions:

* Product Stewardship

* Industrial Policy

* Energy, HSE and Logistics

* Build Trust

* Research and Innovation

* Legislation and Advocacy

* Business Development and Special Projects

The Services Unit addresses both in-house support services and member services:

* Procurement

* Support services

There are four Industry Sectors :

* Fine, Specialty and Consumer Chemicals (FSCC)

* Petrochemistry

* Halogens/Euro Chlor

* PlasticsEurope

Source: http://www.cefic.org

Chemical Abstracts Service maintains the most comprehensive list of chemical substances. Each substance registered in the CAS Registry is assigned a CAS Registry Number. The CAS Registry Number (commonly referred to as CAS number) is widely used as a unique identifier of chemical substances. (Source: REACH Glossary)

chemical analyses is the study of the separation, identification, and quantification of the chemical components of natural and artificial materials.

Qualitative analysis gives an indication of the identity of the chemical species in the sample and quantitative analysis determines the amount of one or more of these components. The separation of components is generally performed prior to analysis.

Chemical analytical methods are classified according the tool they apply. According to the tools we differentiate between qualitative and quantitative analyses as well as preparatory methods.

Aim of the qualitative analysis is to find a direct or indirect proof for the presence of the substance in question or its product. Qualitative tools are: identification of the chemical compound based on physico-chemical behaviour (colour, melting point, flame-ionisation, mass-spectrum), chemical reactions, including biochemical and molecular biological (e.g. DNA) techniques, such as product of the chemical substance with a specific chemical reagent. In case of biologically active substances, the product of a biochemical reaction or the response of a biological system can also be measured. A new and very efficient analytical tool is the identification of certain DNA sequences.

Quantitative tools are based on measuring mass, volume, flux or intensity. For measuring the quantity-related endpoint the following traditional and instrumental methods can be used: gravimetry, volumetry, microscopy, spectrometry, mass spectrometry, electrochemical and thermal techniques, etc. Most of the quantitative tools apply standards to be able to express the result of the measured endpoint in concentration.

For the separation of the components of a mixture the traditional analysis applies precipitation, extraction, and distillation, the instrumental tools are the different chromatographic and electrophoretic methods.

Chemical analyses has widespread use in diagnosis and remediation, environmental science and practice, chemical industries, agriculture, food industry and all kind of other industries. The utilisation of analytical methods includes monitoring, early warning or quality assurance on the fields of human health, environment and industries.

chemical elements are a pure chemical substances consisting of one type of atom. Chemical elements are characterised by their atomic number, which is the number of protons in their nucleus. All chemical molecules consists of elements. On the http://www.chemicalelements.co website you can see the periodic table and get deatiled information by clicking on the symbol of the element.

the hazard associated with a chemical is its intrinsic ability to cause an adverse effect. It should be compared to risk, which is the chance that such effects will occur in the realty. Whilst a chemical may have hazardous properties, provided it is handled safely under contained conditions, any risk to human health or the environment is extremely low.

chemical oxidation typically involves reduction/oxidation redox reactions that chemically convert hazardous contaminants to nonhazardous or less toxic compounds that are more stable, less mobile, or inert. Redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons from one compound to another.

Specifically, one reactant is oxidized loses electrons and one is reduced gains electrons.

The oxidizing agents most commonly used for treatment of hazardous contaminants in soil are ozone, hydrogen peroxide, hypochlorites, chlorine, chlorine dioxide, potassium permanganate, and Fentons reagent hydrogen peroxide and iron.

Cyanide oxidation and dechlorination are examples of chemical treatment. This method may be applied in situ or ex situ, to soils, sludges, sediments, and other solids, and may also be applied for the in situ treatment of groundwater.

Source: US-EPA, ClU-In: http://www.clu-in.org/techfocus/default.focus/sec/In_Situ_Oxidation/cat/Overview/

a chemical process in which substances are changed into different substances. Chemical reactions are manifested by the disappearance of properties characteristic of the starting materials and the appearance of new properties that distinguish the products.

chemical Safety is achieved by undertaking all activities involving chemicals in such a way as to ensure the safety of human health and the environment.

It covers all chemicals, natural and manufactured, and the full range of exposure situations from the natural presence of chemicals in the environment to their extraction or synthesis, industrial production, transport use and disposal.

Chemical safety has many scientific and technical components. Among these are toxicology, ecotoxicology and the process of chemical risk assessment which requires a detailed knowledge of exposure and of biological effects.

Hazardous chemicals, naturally occurring or man-made, can reach our body through different routes (e.g., food, air, water) and cause a variety of health effects.

The number of existing chemicals and their compounds is very large, and for many of them the health risks are not known. Chemicals can be the result of anthropogenic sources or occur in nature. Hazardous chemicals can reach our body through different routes (e.g. food, air, water) and cause a variety of health effects.

Due to the many ways in which chemicals are used and released, the many exposure routes involved, and the different mixtures of chemicals present, the public health relevance of chemicals can be extremely difficult to assess. European Environment and Health Information System (ENHIS) indicators contribute to relate the exposure to hazardous chemicals to various policy measures that can be taken to reduce exposure or to prevent health effects.

Source: WHO — http://www.who.int/topics/chemical_safety/en/

Chemical Safety Assessment is the process aimed at determining the risk posed by a substance and, as part of the exposure assessment, develop exposure scenarios including risk management measures to control the risks. Annex I contains general provisions for performing a CSA. The CSA consists of the following steps:
- Human health hazard assessment
- Human health hazard assessment of physicochemical properties
- Environmental hazard assessment
- PBT and vPvB assessment
If, as a result of this hazard assessment, the registrant concludes that the substance meets the criteria for classification as dangerous according to Directive 67/548/EEC (for substances) or has PBT/vPvB properties, this triggers further steps in the chemical safety assessment:
- exposure assessment
- risk characterization.
(Source: REACH, Glossary)

Chemical Safety Assessment is the process aimed at determining the risk posed by a substance and, as part of the exposure assessment, develop exposure scenarios including risk management measures to control the risks. Annex I contains general provisions for performing a CSA. The CSA consists of the following steps:
- Human health hazard assessment
- Human health hazard assessment of physicochemical properties
- Environmental hazard assessment
- PBT and vPvB assessment
If, as a result of this hazard assessment, the registrant concludes that the substance meets the criteria for classification as dangerous according to Directive 67/548/EEC (for substances) or has PBT/vPvB properties, this triggers further steps in the chemical safety assessment:
- exposure assessment
- risk characterization.
(Source: REACH Glossary)

See: Chemical Safety Datasheet

The International Chemical Safety Cards (ICSCs) provide information on the intrinsic hazards of specific chemicals together with first aid and fire-fighting measures, and information about precautions for spillage, disposal, storage, packaging, labelling and transport. They are produced by the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) in collaboration with the European Commission and various national bodies.

An ICSC is designed to complement a Material Safety Data Sheet, and to be used by individual workers rather than safety specialists. The cards are produced in a standard format, which eases translation between languages. The cards are currently available in HTML or PDF format in sixteen languages, and in paper format in other languages.

(http://www.inchem.org/pages/icsc.html)

the chemical safety report documents the chemical safety assessment for a substance on its own, in a preparation or in an article or a group of substances.
In other words the Chemical Safety Report (CSR) is a document, which details the process and the results of a Chemical Safety Assessment (CSA). Annex I of the REACH Regulation contains general provisions for performing CSAs and preparing CSRs.
(Source: REACH Glossary)

the chemical safety report documents the chemical safety assessment for a substance on its own, in a preparation or in an article or a group of substances.
In other words the Chemical Safety Report (CSR) is a document, which details the process and the results of a Chemical Safety Assessment (CSA). Annex I of the REACH Regulation contains general provisions for performing CSAs and preparing CSRs. (Source: REACH Glossary)

in Annexes VII and VIII to Directive 79/831/EEC, methods for the determination of the ecotoxicity of chemical substances are enlisted. The methods are based on those recognized and recommended by competent international bodies (in particular OECD).

General introduction
1 acute toxicity for fish
2 acute toxicity for Daphnia
3 algal inhibition test
4 biodegradation: determination of the "ready" biodegradability
  4-a dissolved organic carbon (doc) die-away test
  4-b modified oecd screening test
  4-c carbon dioxide evolution test
  4-d manometric respirometry test
  4-e closed bottle test
  4-f miti test
5 degradation : biochemical oxygen demand
6 degradation: chemical oxygen demand
7 degradation: abiotic degradation: hydrolysis as a function of ph
8 toxicity for earthworms : artificial soil test
9 biodegradation: Zahn−Wellens test
10 biodegradation: activated sludge simulation test
11 biodegradation: activated sludge respiration inhibition test
12 biodegradation: modified scas test
13 bioconcentration: flow-through fish test
14 fish juvenile growth test
15 fish, short-term toxicity test on embryo and sac-fry stages
16 honeybees, acute oral toxicity test
17 honeybees, acute contact toxicity test
18 adsorption/desorption using a batch equilibrium method
19 estimation of the adsorption coefficient (koc) on soil and on sewage sludge using high performance liquid chromatography (hplc)
20 Daphnia magna reproduction test
21 soil microorganisms: nitrogen transformation test
22 soil microorganisms: carbon transformation test
23 aerobic and anaerobic transformation in soil
24 aerobic and anaerobic transformation in aquatic sediment systems

in Annexes VII and VIII to Directive 79/831/EEC, methods for the determination of the physico-chemical properties of chemical substances are enlisted. The methods are based on those recognized and recommended by competent international bodies (in particular OECD).
1 melting/freezing temperature
2 boiling temperature
3 relative density
4 vapour pressure
5 surface tension
6 water solubility
8 octanol−water partition coefficient
9 flash-point
10 flammability (solids)
11 flammability (gases)
12 flammability (contact with water)
13 pyrophoric properties of solids and liquids
14 explosive properties
15 auto-ignition temperature (liquids and gases)
16 relative self-ignition temperature for solids
17 oxidizing properties (solids)
18 number - average molecular weight and molecular weight distribution of polymers
19 low molecular weight content of polymers
20 solution / extraction behaviour of polymers in water
21 oxidising properties (liquids)

in Annexes VII and VIII to Directive 79/831/EEC, methods for the determination of the toxicity of chemical substances are enlisted. The methods are based on those recognized and recommended by competent international bodies (in particular OECD).

1 general introduction
1bis acute oral toxicity - fixed dose procedure
1tris acute oral toxicity - acute toxic class method
2 acute toxicity (inhalation)
3 acute toxicity (dermal)
4 acute toxicity: dermal irritation/corrosion
5 acute toxicity: eye irritation/corrosion
6 skin sensitisation
7 repeated dose (28 days) toxicity (oral)
8 repeated dose (28 days) toxicity (inhalation)
9 repeated dose (28 days) toxicity (dermal)
10 mutagenicity − in vitro mammalian chromosome aberration test)
11 mutagenicity − in vivo mammalian bone-marrow chromosome aberration test
12 mutagenicity mammalian erythrocyte micronucleus test
13/14 mutagenicity − reverse mutation test using bacteria
15 gene mutation − Saccharomyces cerevisae
16 mitotic recombination − Saccharomyces cerevisae
17 mutagenicity − in vitro mammalian cell gene mutation test
18 dna damage and repair − unscheduled dna synthesis − mammalian cells in vitro
19 sister chromatid exchange assay in vitro
20 sex-linked recessive lethal test in Drosophila melanogaster
21 in vitro mammalian cell transformation test
22 rodent dominant lethal test
23 mammalian spermatogonial chromosome aberration test
24 mouse spot test
25 mouse heritable translocation
26 sub-chronic oral toxicity test. Repeated dose 90-day toxicity study in rodents
27 sub-chronic oral toxicity test: repeated dose 90-day toxicity study in non-rodents
28 sub-chronic dermal toxicity test: 90-day repeated dermal dose study using rodent species
29 sub-chronic inhalation toxicity test: 90-day repeated inhalation dose study using rodent species
30 chronic toxicity test
31 teratogenicity test rodent and non-rodent
32 carcinogenicity test
33 combined chronic toxicity/carcinogenicity test
34 one-generation reproduction toxicity test
35 two generation reproduction toxicity test
36 toxicokinetics
37 delayed neurotoxicity of organophosphorus substances following acute exposure
38 delayed neurotoxicity of organophosphorus substances 28 day repeated dose study
39 unscheduled dna synthesis (uds) test with mammalian liver cells in vivo
40 skin corrosion (in vitro)
41 phototoxicity − in vitro 3t3 nru phototoxicity test
42 skin sensitisation: local lymph node assay
43 neurotoxicity study in rodents

chemical weathering is caused by rain water reacting with the mineral grains in rocks to form new minerals (clays) and soluble salts. These reactions occur particularly when the water is slightly acidic.

These chemical processes need water, and occur more rapidly at higher temperature, so warm, damp climates are best.It means that soil formation is faster under tropic klimate compared to moderate or cold climate.

Chemical weathering (especially hydrolysis and oxidation) is the first stage in the production of soils.
There are different types of chemical weathering, the most important are:

Solution - removal of rock in solution by acidic rainwater. In particular, limestone is weathered by rainwater containing dissolved CO₂, (this process is sometimes called carbonation).

Hydrolysis - the breakdown of rock by acidic water to produce clay and soluble salts.

Oxidation - the breakdown of rock by oxygen and water, often giving iron-rich rocks a rusty-coloured weathered surface.