Lexikon
material derived from living organisms. biogenic elements are the elements in the living organisms: C, H, O, N, S and P. biogenic amines are the biologically active amines of biological origin.
bioleaching is a type of leaching where the extraction of metal from solid minerals into a solution is facilitated by the metabolism of certain microbes - bioleaching microbes. Bioleaching is a process described as "the use of microorganisms to transform elements so that the elements can be extracted from a material when water is filtered trough it".
Source: BioMineWiki: http://wiki.biomine.skelleftea.se/wiki/index.php/Bioleaching
biological pest control in the organic agriculture is mainly against arthropods (e.g. insects, mites) and nematodes, as well as fungi and bacteria.
Insect pests are a common problem, and insecticides, both non-organic and organic, are controversial due to their environmental and health effects. One way to manage insects is to ignore them and focus on plant health, since plants can survive the loss of about a third of leaf area before suffering severe growth consequences.
To avoid using insecticides, one can select naturally resistant plants, put bags around the plants, remove dying material such as leaves, fruit, and diseased plants, cover plants with a solid barrier ("row cover"), wash them, encourage and release beneficial organisms and beneficial insects, plant companion plants and polycultures, install traps such as sticky cards (which can also be used to assess insect prevalence), and season extension. Biological pest control uses natural predators. Recommended beneficial insects include minute pirate bugs, big-eyed bugs, and to a lesser extent ladybugs (which tend to fly away), all of which eat a wide range of pests. Lacewings are also effective, but tend to fly away. Praying mantis tend to move more slowly and eat less heavily. Parasitoid wasps tend to be effective for their selected prey, but like all small insects can be less effective outdoors because the wind controls their movement. Predatory mites are effective for controlling other mites.
Several pesticides approved for organic use, such as spinosad and neem, have been called green pesticides. The main organic insecticides used in the US are Bt (a bacterial toxin) and pyrethrum. Surveys have found that fewer than 10% of organic farmers use these pesticides regularly. Nicotine sulfate may also be used although it is extremely toxic, but breaks down quickly. Less toxic but still effective organic insecticides include neem, spinosad, soaps, garlic, citrus oil, capsaicin (repellent), Bacillus popillae, Beauvaria bassiana, and boric acid. Pesticides should be rotated to minimize pest resistance.
The first disease control strategy involves cleaning the area by removing diseased and dying plants and ensure that the plants are healthy by maintaining water and fertilization.
Compost tea can be effective, but there is concern over whether these are ineffective or even harmful when made incorrectly.
Polyculture and crop rotation reduce the ability of disease to spread. Disease-resistant cultivars can be purchased.
Organic fungicides include the bacteria Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus pumilus, and Trichoderma harzianum which are mainly effective for diseases affecting roots.
Bordeaux mixture contains copper, which can be used as an organic fungicide in various forms. Sulfur is effective against fungus as well as some insects.Lime sulfur is also available, but can damage plants if used incorrectly. Potassium and sodium bicarbonate are also effective against fungus.
Agricultural Research Service scientists have found that caprylic acid, a naturally-occurring fatty acid in milk and coconuts, as well as other natural plant extracts have antimicrobial characteristics that can help.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_farming
the transfer of substances from the environment to microorganisms, plants, animals, and humans.
biological methods of wastewater treatment aim the biodegradation of the organic and inorganic pollutants in the waste water or the elimination ot these by other biological processes. The biodegradable organic material content of the waste waters is expressed as BOD (Biological Oxigene Demand) which is too high to let the waste-water into living surface waters. That is why we can say, that the aim of biological waste-water treatment is to reduce the BOD content in the waste-waters before their discharge into surface waters. Wastewaters enter the treatment plant with a BOD higher than 200 mg/L, but primary settling has already reduced it to about 150 mg/L by the time it enters the biological component of the technology. It needs to exit with a BOD content no higher than about 20−30 mg/L, so that after dilution in the nearby receiving water body (river, lake), the BOD is less than 2−3 mg/L.
Main principle of biological waste-water treatment is that bacterial cells use the organic material present in the wastewater as substrates for energy production (respiration, mineralisation) accompanied with CO2 and NH3 production. Part of the organic and inorganic constituents of the waste-water is used for the biosynthesis of the same microbes; through their metabolism, the organic material is transformed into cellular mass, which is no longer in solution but can be precipitated at the bottom of a settling tank or retained as slime on solid surfaces or vegetation in the system. The outflow of water becomes much clearer than it was, when entered.
The bioengineer ensures the optimal conditionss for the microorganisms to be able to work most efficiently. A key factor is the operation of an aerobic biological system is an adequate supply of oxygen. Indeed, cells need not only organic material as food but also oxygen to breathe. Without an adequate supply of oxygen, the biological degradation of the waste is slowed down, thereby requiring a longer residency time of the water in the treatment technology.
Biological treatment, is also called secondary waste-water treatment is designed to substantially degrade the biologically degradable or modifiable content of the sewage which are derived from human waste, food waste, soaps and detergent, in some cases industrial wastes. The majority of municipal plants treat the settled sewage liquor using aerobic biological processes. The bacteria and protozoa consume biodegradable soluble organic contaminants (e.g. sugars, fats, organic short-chain carbon molecules, etc.) and bind much of the less soluble fractions into floc. Flocs consists of living and dead microbes, slime and sorbed, non.degradable pollutants and waste material. The flocs can be sedimented or otherwise separated from the water phase. Some pollutants are concentrated in the waste-water sludge; part of them are able to be slowly degraded, but an other part is persistent (metals, persistent organic substances). These persistent contaminants in waste-water sludges makes the unlimited utilisation of the sludge impossibel.
Biological waste-water treatment systems are classified as fixed-film or suspended-growth systems. Fixed-film or attached growth systems include trickling filters and rotating biological contactors, where the biomass grows on media and the sewage passes over its surface. Suspended-growth systems include activated sludge, where the biomass is mixed with the sewage and can be operated in a smaller space than fixed-film systems that treat the same amount of water. However, fixed-film systems are more able to cope with drastic changes in the amount of biological material and can provide higher removal rates for organic material and suspended solids than suspended growth systems (Wikipedia).
The most well-known biologica waste-water treatment technologies are the following:
- Activated sludge treatmen
- Surface-aerated basins (Lagoons)
- Filter beds (oxidizing beds)
- Soil Bio-Technology
- Biological aerated filters
- Rotating biological contactors
- Membrane bioreactors
- Secondary sedimentation
- Lagooning
- Constructed wetlands
- Nitrogen removal
- Phosphorus removal
Technologies for the treatment of the waste-water sludge
- Anaerobic digestion
- Aerobic digestion
- Composting
- Incineration
- Sludge disposal
living organisms contribute to the weathering process in many ways.
Trees put down roots through joints or cracks in the rock in order to find moisture. As the tree grows, the roots gradually prize the rock apart.
Even the tiniest bacteria, algae and lichens produce chemicals that help break down the rock on which they live, so they can get the nutrients they need.
Many animals, such as these Piddock shells, bore into rocks for protection either by scraping away the grains or secreting acid to dissolve the rock.
Source: http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/gsl/education/resources/rockcycle/page3568.html
a bit is a specific amount of information found in computers. It is abreviation of Binary Unit.
Bytes, kilobytes, megabytes and gigabytes are all increasing levels of bits. A bit is the smallest piece of computer memory. It is either 1 or 0, meaning on or off. It is exactly one-eighth.
the term black earth is synonymous with Chernozem used (e.g. in Australia) to describe self-mulching black clays.
breast cancer can begin in different areas of the breast – the ducts, the lobules, or in some cases, the tissue in between. The different types of breast cancer nclude non-invasive, invasive, recurrent, and metastatic breast cancers. Breast cancer may occur in men.
DCIS – Ductal Carcinoma In Situ
IDC – Invasive Ductal Carcinoma
IDC Type: Tubular Carcinoma of the Breast
IDC Type: Medullary Carcinoma of the Breast
IDC Type: Mucinous Carcinoma of the Breast
IDC Type: Papillary Carcinoma of the Breast
IDC Type: Cribriform Carcinoma of the Breast
ILC – Invasive Lobular Carcinoma
Inflammatory Breast Cancer
LCIS – Lobular Carcinoma In Situ
Male Breast Cancer
Paget's Disease of the Nipple
Phyllodes Tumors of the Breast
Recurrent and Metastatic Breast Cancer
Source: http://www.breastcancer.org/symptoms/types/
classification and labelling of chemical substances under the REACH regulation.
See also: classification and labelling of chemical substances
the cDNA library contains only complementary DNA molecules synthesized from mRNA molecules in a cell.
The advantage of cDNA library is that it contains only the coding region of a genome. To prepare a cDNA library, the first step is to isolate the total mRNA from the cell type of interest. Because eukaryotic mRNAs consist of a poly-A tail, they can easily be separated. Then the enzyme reverse transcriptase is used to synthesize a DNA strand complementary to each mRNA mlecule. After the single-stranded DNA molecules are converted into double-stranded DNA molecules by DNA polymerase, they are inserted into vectors and cloned.
The Johns Hopkins Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT) works since 1981 to find new methods to replace the use of laboratory animals in experiments, reduce the number of animals tested, and refine necessary tests to eliminate pain and distress.
CAAT provides a variety of resources, including grants for scientists developing non-animal methods workshops on alternative methods, books, newsletters, and other publications.
They also manage Altweb, an international online clearinghouse of alternatives news. You can visit the video documentary.
See also: http://caat.jhsph.edu/
Concerted Action on brownfield and Economic Regeneration Network.
The CABERNET network consists of 55 Members, including 8 Team Leaders and 4 Coordination Team members, originating from 21 countries across Europe.
The groups cover the different aspects of rehabilitation of brownfield sites. The network has been divided into 8 distinct stakeholder groups. A number of Stakeholder Groups also have invited non-contracted Associate Members.
CABERNET has a distinct multi-disciplinary flavour, consisting of members from a wide range of professional backgrounds including environmental science, engineering, spatial and urban planning, and political administration.
The Members, drawn from across the European Community and accession countries, represent interests that span the stakeholder spectrum.
Source: http://www.cabernet.org.uk/index.asp?c=1125
calibration is he set of operations that establish, under specified conditions, the relationship between values indicated by a measuring instrument or measuring system, and the corresponding known values. The result of a calibration is sometimes expressed as a calibration factor, or as a series of calibration factors in the form of a calibration curve.
Calibration standard is a substance or reference material used to calibrate an instrument.
Calibration check standard is a standard independently prepared (different source, different analyst) from the calibration standards and run after the original calibration to verify the original calibration. There is usually at least one calibration check standard per batch.
calibration curve gives the relation between analyte concentration and analytical response. Normally at least 3-5 appropriately placed calibration standards are needed to adequately define the curve. The curve should incorporate a low standard not exceeding 10 times the detection limit. Analytical response, where appropriate, is zeroed using a reagent blank. Either a linear or
other curve fit, as appropriate, may be used. Standards and samples must have equivalent reagent backgrounds (e.g., solvent, acid content, etc.) at the point of analysis.
any one of a group of diseases that occur when cells in the body become abnormal and grow or multiply out of control.
Carcinogenity of chemical substances is confirmed by animal testing. In carcinogenicity tests the tumors grown on the effect of the substance are investigated.
the basic substance of nylon synthesis. Caprolactam is produced from phenol.
CARACAL is an expert group giving advice for the European Commission and ECHA (European Chemicals Agency) on questions related to REACH and CLP. It was founded as "European Commission Working Group on the Practical Preparations for REACH" in May 2004. As of September 2007, it was re-named into "REACH Competent Authorities (REACH CA)" and, as of March 2009, into "Competent Authorities for REACH and CLP (CARACAL)".
See also: http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/sectors/chemicals/reach/caracal/index_en.htm
Concerted Action on risk Assessment for Contaminated Land
http://www.umweltbundesamt.at/en/umweltschutz/
altlasten/projekte1/international1/caracas
any member of a very abundant and widespread class of natural organic substances, compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, that includes the sugars, starch, and cellulose.
carbon capture and storage (CCS), also mentioned as carbon capture and sequestration, is a means of mitigating the contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global warming, based on capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants, and storing it in such a way that it does not enter the atmosphere.
Storage of the CO2 is envisaged either in deep geological formations, in deep ocean masses, or in the form of mineral carbonates. Geological formations are currently considered the most promising sequestration sites. Deep ocean storage has a risk of increased ocean acidification. Leakage of the underground storage places has also certain risk.
Although CO2 has been injected into geological formations for various purposes, the long term storage of CO2 is a relatively new concept. The first commercial example is Weyburn in 2000. Integrated pilot-scale CCS power plant was to begin operating in September 2008 in the eastern German power plant Schwarze Pumpe run by utility Vattenfall, in the hope of answering questions about technological feasibility and economic efficiency.
CCS applied to a modern conventional power plant could reduce CO2 emissions to the atmosphere by approximately 80-90% compared to a plant without CCS.
Capturing and compressing CO2 requires much energy and would increase the fuel needs of a coal-fired plant with CCS by 25%-40%. Estimates for 2025 say, that costs with CO2 sequestration will not be higher, than without. (Source: Wikipedia)
Carbon capture and storage has also been used to describe biological capture by plants and microorganisms and subsequent storage of atmospheric CO2, mainly in soil, and also in surface water sediments.
Biological sequestration involves the net removal of CO2 from the atmosphere by plants and micro-organisms and its storage in vegetative biomass or structura organic matter. such as humus. Terrestrial carbon sequestration means the storage in storage in vegetative biomass and in soils.
Terrestrial sequestration applies agro- and forestry-technologies as well as ecoengineering tools and offers many potential advantages:
- could sequester relatively large volumes of carbon at comparatively low cost
- protecting or improving soils, water resources, habitat, and biodiversity
- generate rural income
- promotes more sustainable agriculture and forestry practices.
the term used to describe the exchange of carbon (in various forms, e.g., as carbon dioxide) between the atmosphere, ocean, terrestrial biosphere, and geological deposits.
a colourless, non-poisonous gas (under a certain concentration) that is a normal part of the ambient air. CO2 or carbon dioxide is formed in combustion of fossil fuel or any carbon-containing organic materials. It is the endproduct of biological oxidation (energy production) by the respiration of aerobic or alternative respiration of anaerobic organisms. CO2 is employed by plants and other phototrophic organisms in the photosynthesis of carbohydrates.
a carbon-management method, the process of removing carbon from the atmosphere and the carbon cycle, and depositing it in a reservoir, in biomass or in stabile natural organic matter forms. See also carbon capture and storage (CCS).
arbon tetrachloride is produced by the high temperature chlorination of propylene or methane. It is used as a feedstock in the production of CFCs, HCFCs and HFCs, as a process agent in the production of chlorine, to extract nitrogen trichloride, and as a solvent to recover chlorine from tail gas. It has been phased out in dispersive uses since 1995 under the Montreal Protocol.
carbon management is the concept that the impact of burning fossil fuels on global warming might be minimized.
Carbon management have two main steps: carbon capturing or sequestration and carbon-storage. The practical solutions for minimizing emission and lowering CO2 content in the atmosphere may differ for point and diffuse sources.
Separation of emitted carbon (primarily carbon dioxide) maybe done by physico-chemical or biological methods. Physico-chemical methods are applied mainly for point sources (treatment of the emission of power plants and incinerators), the biological methods (immobilisation of CO2 by plants and microorganisms) for diffuse atmospheric CO2.
The storage may happen as deposites in geological formations or in biomass. The disposal into geological formations is carried out by geotechnologies. Storage in biomass is the result of agro- or ecotechnologies, and the carbon can be stored both in living or dead organic matter, or humus.
Terrestrial sequestration is based on biomass production (plant and microbial) an storage in the soil in form of humus.
carcinogen is a substance or a mixture of substances which induces cancer or increases its incidence (REACH).
Tghere are other definitions, such as the UNECE (2004) "The term carcinogen denotes a chemical substance or a mixture of chemical substances which induce cancer or increase its incidence".
An third alternate definition is that carcinogenic substances are ones that "induce tumors (benign or malignant), increase their incidence or malignancy, or shorten the time of tumor occurrence when they are inhaled, injected, dermally applied, or ingested".
Carcinogens are classified according to their mode of action as genotoxic or nongenotoxic carcinogens. Genotoxic carcinogens initiate carcinogenesis by direct interaction with DNA, resulting in DNA damage or chromosomal aberrations that can be detected by genotoxicity tests (OECD, 2006).
Nongenotoxic carcinogens are agents that, at least initially, directly internact with DNA. These indirect modifications to DNA structure, amount, or function may result in altered gene expression or signal transduction (OECD, 2006).
In animal studies, most potent mutagens are also found to be carcinogenic (Maurici, et al., 2005). Substances that induce tumors in animals are considered as presumed or suspected human carcinogens until convincing evidence to the contrary is presented (UNECE, 2004).
Sources:
REACH Glossary
http://alttox.org/ttrc/toxicity-tests/carcinogenicity/
UNECE, 2004
Maurici D, Aardema M, Corvi R, et al. (2005), “Carcinogenicity”. Alt Lab Anim Vol. 33 (Suppl 1): 177−182
carcinogenic effect has a substance or a mixture of substances which induces cancer or increases its incidence and/or malignancy or shorten the time to tumour occurrence. Causing cancer may be due to the ability to damage the genome or to the disruption of cellular metabolic processes. Carcinogenic chemicals have conventionally been divided into two categories according to the presumed mode of action. Non-genotoxic modes of action include epigenetic changes, i.e., effects that do not involve alterations in DNA but that may influence gene expression, altered cell-cell communication, or other factors involved in the carcinogenic process.
Cancer is a disorder of the cells, characterized by the lack of programmed cell death. Carcinogens induces the uncontrolled, malignant division pf cells, ultimately leading to the formation of tumors. Usually DNA damage leads to programmed cell death, but if the programmed cell death pathway is damaged, then the cell cannot prevent itself from becoming a cancer cell. The objective of investigating the carcinogenicity of chemicals is to identify potential human carcinogens, their modes of action, and their potency. Once a chemical has been identified as a carcinogen, there is a need to elucidate the underlying mode of action, i.e. whether the chemical is directly genotoxic or not. For genotoxic carcinogens it is assumed that, unless exception, there is no discernible threshold and that any level of exposure carries a risk. For non-genotoxic carcinogens, no-effect-thresholds are assumed to exist and to be discernable. Human studies are generally not available for making a distinction between the above mentioned modes of action; and a conclusion on this, in fact, depends on the outcome of mutagenicity testing and other mechanistic studies. In addition to this, animal studies may also inform on the underlying mode of carcinogenic action.
The cancer hazard and mode of action may also be highly dependent on exposure conditions such as the route of exposure. Therefore, all relevant effect data and information on human exposure conditions are evaluated.
carotene is an orange photosynthetic pigment in plants. Carotenes are responsible for the orange colour of the carrot for which it is named, and many other fruits and vegetables. Some type of microorganisms also synthetize carotenes.
In humans β-carotene can be stored in the liver and body fat and converted to retinal as needed, thus making it a form of vitamine-A for humans and some other mammals. The carotenes α-carotene and γ-carotene, due to their single retinyl group, also have some vitamin A activity (though less than β-carotene), but all other carotenoids, including lycopene, have no beta-ring and thus no vitamin A activity.
Carotenes are natural antioxidants and such thay are used for dietary supplements or food and cosmetics preservatives to prevent oxidation.