Lexikon

microbiology is the study of microorganisms, which are unicellular or cell-cluster microscopic organisms. This includes eukaryotes such as fungi and protists, and prokaryotes. Viruses, though not strictly classed as living organisms, are also studied by microbiology. Microbiology refers to the study of life and organisms that are too small to be seen with the naked eye.

Microbiology typically includes the study of the immune system, or Immunology. Generally, immune systems interact with pathogenic microbes; these two disciplines often intersect which is why many colleges offer a paired degree such as "Microbiology and Immunology".

Microbiology is a broad term which includes virology, mycology, parasitology, bacteriology and other branches. A microbiologist is a specialist in microbiology and these other topics.

Microbiology is researched actively, and the field is advancing continually. It is estimated only about one percent of all of the microbe species on Earth have been studied.^[3] Although microbes were directly observed over three hundred years ago, the field of microbiology can be said to be in its infancy relative to older biological disciplines such as zoology and botany.

microinjection is a technique for introducing a solution of DNA into a cell using a fine microcapillary pipet.

basic unit of length, one millionth meter: 1 micrometre = 0, 000,001 metre.
The symbol of micrometre is μm.
It is also called micron.

basic unit of length, one millionth meter: 1 micron = 0, 000,001 metre, or 1x10^-6 m.
The symbol of micron is μm.
It is also called micrometre.

small nuclei, separate from and additional to the main nuclei of cells, produced during telophase of mitosis (meiosis) by lagging chromosome fragments or whole chromosomes. There are two major versions of this test, one in vivo and the other in vitro. The in vivo test normally uses mouse bone marrow or mouse peripheral blood. The assay is now recognized as one of the most successful and reliable assays for genotoxic carcinogens, i.e., carcinogens that act by causing genetic damage.

a micronucleus test is a test used in toxicological screening for potential genotoxic compounds. There are two major versions of this test, one in vivo and the other in vitro. The in vivo test normally uses mouse bone marrow or mouse peripheral blood. The assay is now recognized as one of the most successful and reliable assays for genotoxic carcinogens, i.e., carcinogens that act by causing genetic damage. The mouse peripheral blood assay has been adapted for measurement by flow cytometry. The first use of micronuclei in cultured cells was in human lymphocytes. The assay has been improved for use in lymphocytes and other cells in culture cells. A micronucleus is the erratic (third) nucleus that is formed during the anaphase of mitosis or meiosis.

Using fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) with probes targeted to the centromere region, it can be determined if a whole chromosome, or only a fragment is lost.

the genetic material found in mitochondria, the organelles that generate energy for the cell.

The mitochondrion has its own independent genome. Not inherited in the same fashion as nucleic DNA and the molecular structure is also different from the chromosomal DNA.

Further, its DNA shows substantial similarity to bacterial genomes. Based on this similarity they are thought to be originally derived from endosymbiotic prokaryotes.

in manufacturing and design, a mock-up or mockup, is a scale or full-size model of a design or device, used for teaching, demonstration, evaluating a design, promotion, and other purposes. A mockup is called a prototype if it provides at least part of the functionality of a system and enables testing of a design.

in agriculture and gardening, mulch is a protective cover placed over the soil to retain moisture, reduce erosion, provide nutrients, and suppress weed growth and seed germination. Mulching in gardens and landscaping mimics the leaf cover that is found on forest floors.

Mulch can be prepared from waste material:

forestry waste/byproduct, such as shredded bark, whole bark nuggets, wood chips
agricultural waste/by-product, such as grass clippings, leaves, hay, straw
other waste material of biological origin: shells, wool
cellulose containing waste material such as newspaper or cardboard
rubber mulch: made from recycled tire rubber
ecogravel made from gredged (contaminated) sediment by vitrificatio
waste rock and gravel.

multi-phase extraction uses a vacuum system to remove various combinations of contaminated groundwater, separate-phase petroleum product, and vapors from the subsurface. The system lowers the water table around the well, exposing more of the formation. Contaminants in the newly exposed vadose zone are then accessible to vapor extraction. Once above ground, the extracted vapors or liquid-phase organics and ground water are separated and treated.

Source: US-EPA, Clu-In:http://www.clu-in.org/techfocus/default.focus/sec/Multi-Phase_Extraction/cat/Overview/

mutagenic substances or agents are, those, which induce mutation in living cells. Mutagenicity refers to the induction of permanent transmissible changes in the amount or structure of the genetic material of cells or organisms. These changes may involve a single gene or gene segment, a block of genes or chromosomes.

Alterations to the genetic material of cells may occur spontaneously or be induced as a result of exposure to ionising or ultraviolet radiation, or genotoxic substances. In principle, human exposure to substances that are mutagens may result in increased frequencies of mutations above baseline. Heritable damage to the offspring, and possibly to subsequent generations, of parents exposed to substances that are mutagens may follow if mutations are induced in parental germ cells (reproduction cells). Mutations in somatic cells (cells others than reproduction cells) may be lethal or may be transferred to daughter cells with deleterious consequences for the affected organism. There is considerable evidence of a positive correlation between the mutagenicity of substances in vivo and their carcinogenicity in long-term studies with animals. The aims of testing for mutagenicity are to assess the potential of substances to induce effects which may cause heritable damage in humans or lead to cancer.

Mutagens are usually chemical compounds or ionizing radiation. Mutagens can be divided into different categories according to their effect on DNA replication:

• Some mutagens act as base analogs and get inserted into the DNA strand during replication in place of the substrates.
• Some react with DNA and cause structural changes that lead to miscopying of the template strand when the DNA is replicated.
• Some work indirectly by causing the cells to synthesize chemicals that have the direct mutagenic effect.

mutagenicity refers to the induction of permanent transmissible changes in the amount or structure of the genetic material of cells or organisms. These changes may involve a single gene or gene segment, a block of genes or chromosomes.
Alterations to the genetic material of cells may occur spontaneously or be induced as a result of exposure to ionising or ultraviolet radiation, or genotoxic substances. In principle, human exposure to substances that are mutagens may result in increased frequencies of mutations above baseline. Heritable damage to the offspring, and possibly to subsequent generations, of parents exposed to substances that are mutagens may follow if mutations are induced in parental germ cells (reproduction cells). Mutations in somatic cells (cells others than reproduction cells) may be lethal or may be transferred to daughter cells with deleterious consequences for the affected organism. There is considerable evidence of a positive correlation between the mutagenicity of substances in vivo and their carcinogenicity in long-term studies with animals. The aims of testing for mutagenicity are to assess the potential of substances to induce effects which may cause heritable damage in humans or lead to cancer.

Chemicals are defined as carcinogenic if they induce tumours, increase tumour incidence and/or malignancy or shorten the time to tumour occurrence. Carcinogenic chemicals have conventionally been divided into two categories according to the presumed mode of action. Non-genotoxic modes of action include epigenetic changes, i.e., effects that do not involve alterations in DNA but that may influence gene expression, altered cell-cell communication, or other factors involved in the carcinogenic process. The objective of investigating the carcinogenicity of chemicals is to identify potential human carcinogens, their mode(s) of action, and their potency.
Once a chemical has been identified as a carcinogen, there is a need to elucidate the underlying mode of action, i.e. whether the chemical is directly genotoxic or not. For genotoxic carcinogens it is assumed that, unless exception, there is no discernible threshold and that any level of exposure carries a risk. For non-genotoxic carcinogens, no-effect-thresholds are assumed to exist and to be discernable. Human studies are generally not available for making a distinction between the above mentioned modes of action; and a conclusion on this, in fact, depends on the outcome of mutagenicity testing and other mechanistic studies. In addition to this, animal studies may also inform on the underlying mode of carcinogenic action.
The cancer hazard and mode of action may also be highly dependent on exposure conditions such as the route of exposure. Therefore, all relevant effect data and information on human exposure conditions are evaluated.

Source: REACH

ecologists, naturalists, and other scientists collectively research and address issues pertaining to global declines in biodiversity. The conservation ethic advocates management of natural resources for the purpose of sustaining biodiversity in species, ecosystems, the evolutionary process, and human culture and society.

Conservation biology is reforming around strategic plans that include principles, guidelines, and tools for the purpose of protecting biodiversity. Conservation biology is crisis–oriented and multi–disciplinary, including ecology, social organization, education, and other disciplines outside of biology.

Preserving biodiversity is a global priority in strategic conservation plans that are designed to engage public policy and concerns affecting local, regional and global scales of communities, ecosystems, and cultures.

Action plans identify ways of sustaining human well-being, employing natural capital, market capital, and ecosystem services.

neurotoxicology is the study of the adverse effects of chemical, biological, and certain physical agents on the nervous system and/or behavior during development and in maturity. Many common substances are neurotoxic, including lead, mercury, some pesticides, and ethanol.

Neurotoxicity testing is used to identify potential neurotoxic substances. Neurotoxicity is a major toxicity endpoint that must be evaluated for many regulatory applications. Sometimes neurotoxicity testing is considered as a component of target organ toxicity; the central nervous system (CNS) being one of the major target organ systems. In utero exposure to chemicals and drugs can also exert an adverse effect on the development of the nervous system, which is called developmental neurotoxicity (DNT).

Like other target organ toxicities, neurotoxicity can result from different types of exposure to a substance; the major routes of exposure are oral, dermal, or inhalation. Neurotoxicity may be observed after a single (acute) dose or after repeated (chronic) dosing.

Source: http://alttox.org/ttrc/toxicity-tests/neurotoxicity/

Network for Industrially Contaminated Land in Europe.
NICOLE (Network for Contaminated Land in Europe) was set up in 1995 as a result of the CEFIC “SUSTECH” programme which promotes co-operation between industry and academia on the development of sustainable technologies. NICOLE is the principal forum that European business uses to develop and influence the state of the art in contaminated land management in Europe. NICOLE was created to bring together problem holders and researchers throughout Europe WHO are interested in all aspects of contaminated land. It is open to public and private sector organisations. NICOLE
was initiated as a Concerted Action within the European Commission’s Environment and Climate RTD Programme in 1996. It has been self-funding since February 1999.
NICOLE’s overall objectives are to:
1) Provide a European forum for the dissemination and exchange of knowledge and ideas about contaminated land
arising from industrial and commercial activities; 
2) Identify research needs and promote collaborative research that will enable European industry to identify,
assess and manage contaminated sites more efficiently and cost-effectively; and
3) Collaborate with other international networks inside and outside Europe and encompass the views of a wide range of interest groups and stakeholders (for example, land developers, local/regional authorities and the insurance/financial investment community).
NICOLE currently has 156 members. Membership fees are used to support and further the aims of the network, including: technical exchanges, network conferences, special interest meetings, brokerage of research and research contacts and information dissemination via a web site, newsletter and journal publications. (Source: http://www.nicole.org)

nitroaromatics are carcinogenic and mutagenic aromatic substances, that are typical contaminants of contaminated military sites, e.g. 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT), 2,4-Dinitrotoluene (DNT), 1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (also known as RDX), cyclotetramethylene tetranitramine (also known as HMX), some pesticides (atrazine), and a number of anilines. (Source: EUGRIS)

A NLP is a substance which was considered as notified under Article 8 (1) of the 6th amendment of Directive 67/548/EEC (and hence did not have to be notified under that Directive), but which does not meet the REACH definition of a polymer (which is the same as the polymer definition introduced by the 7th amendment of Directive 67/548/EEC) (Source: REACH)

highest dose with No Observable Adverse Effect. It is the highest tested dose or exposure level at which there are no statistically significant increases in the frequency or severity of adverse effects between exposed population and an appropriate control group. Some effects may be produced at this level, but they are not considered adverse ort precursors of adverse effects (Source: REACH).